Agricultural Practices

Agriculture involves cultivating plants at one location on a large scale to produce food for a large population. Historically, humans transitioned from being nomadic hunter-gatherers to settled farmers once they learned to cultivate land and grow crops like rice and wheat.

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Kharif Crops

These are crops planted during the monsoon or rainy season in India, which typically lasts from June to September. Examples include paddy (rice), maize, soyabean, groundnut, and cotton. Since paddy requires significant water, it is primarily grown during this season.

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Rabi Crops

These crops are grown during the winter season, generally from October to March. Examples include wheat, gram, pea, mustard, and linseed. Besides these main types, some pulses and vegetables are also cultivated during the summer months in certain areas.

Basic Practices Of Crop Production

Cultivating crops involves a sequence of activities performed by farmers over time, collectively known as agricultural practices. These steps are similar to those used by gardeners when growing plants. The key practices are:

• Preparation of soil
• Sowing seeds
• Adding manure and fertilisers
• Irrigation (watering the crops)
• Protecting crops from weeds
• Harvesting the mature crop
• Storing the harvested produce

Preparation Of Soil

Preparing the soil is the fundamental first step before planting any crop. This involves turning and loosening the soil, which is crucial for several reasons:

• It allows plant roots to penetrate deeper into the soil easily.
• Loose soil facilitates better aeration, allowing roots to breathe even when deep underground.
• It promotes the growth of beneficial organisms like earthworms and microbes, which further loosen the soil and enrich it with humus.
• By turning the soil, nutrient-rich layers from the deeper parts are brought to the surface, making them available for plants.

The process of loosening and turning soil is called tilling or ploughing. If the soil is very dry, it may need watering before ploughing. Ploughing often leaves large soil clumps called crumbs, which must be broken down for better yield. Levelling the ploughed field using a leveller is also important for both sowing and irrigation. Sometimes, manure is mixed into the soil before tilling to ensure proper distribution and moistening before sowing.

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Agricultural Implements

Various tools are used for soil preparation and breaking soil clumps to achieve better yields. The primary tools include the plough, hoe, and cultivator.

• Plough: Used since ancient times for tilling, adding fertilisers, removing weeds, and turning soil. Traditional ploughs are made of wood, pulled by animals like bulls, horses, or camels. It has a strong triangular iron part called the ploughshare and a long wooden log called the ploughshaft. A beam on the other end is placed on the animals' necks. Modern agriculture increasingly uses iron ploughs.
• Hoe: A simple tool mainly used for removing weeds and loosening the soil. It consists of a long rod (wood or iron) with a strong, broad, bent iron plate fixed at one end, acting like a blade. It is typically pulled by animals.
• Cultivator: Nowadays, ploughing is often done using a tractor-driven cultivator. This modern implement significantly saves both labour and time compared to traditional methods.

Sowing

Sowing is the crucial process of placing seeds in the soil after preparation. Selecting good quality seeds is a key step for successful crop production.

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Selection Of Seeds

Farmers prioritize selecting clean, healthy seeds of good varieties that are expected to yield high production. A simple method to identify healthy seeds is to place them in water. Damaged seeds are often hollow, making them lighter than healthy ones, and therefore they float on the surface. Healthy seeds are denser and sink.

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Traditional Tool

Historically, seeds were sown using a tool shaped like a funnel. Seeds were poured into the funnel and passed down through pipes with sharp ends that pierce the soil to place the seeds.

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Seed Drill

Modern farming uses seed drills, often tractor-attached, for sowing. This tool ensures seeds are sown uniformly at consistent distances and depths. It also helps cover the seeds with soil after sowing, protecting them from birds. Using a seed drill saves time and labour.

Maintaining appropriate spacing between seeds is important to prevent overcrowding. Proper spacing ensures plants receive adequate sunlight, nutrients, and water. In some cases, extra plants may need to be removed to avoid competition.

For certain crops like paddy, seeds are first grown in small areas called nurseries. Once they develop into young plants (seedlings), they are manually transferred and planted in the main field. Some forest and flowering plants are also propagated this way in nurseries.

Adding Manure And Fertilisers

Plants require nutrients for healthy growth. The soil provides these mineral nutrients. When crops are grown repeatedly in the same field without leaving it fallow, the soil becomes depleted of nutrients. To replenish the soil's nutrient content, substances are added in the form of manure and fertilisers. This process is called manuring. Insufficient or improper manuring leads to weak plant growth.

Manure is a natural organic material produced by the decomposition of plant and animal waste by microorganisms. Farmers create pits to dump this waste, allowing it to decompose naturally. The resulting decomposed matter is used as organic manure.

Fertilisers are chemical substances rich in specific nutrients. They are produced in factories. Examples include urea, ammonium sulphate, super phosphate, potash, and complex fertilisers like NPK (Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium).

While fertilisers have helped achieve higher crop yields, excessive use can decrease soil fertility and contribute to water pollution. To maintain soil health, farmers are encouraged to use organic manure, leave fields fallow (uncultivated) between crops, or practice crop rotation.

Crop rotation involves growing different crops alternately in the same field. Traditionally, in northern India, farmers would grow legumes (like pulses) in one season, which helps replenish nitrogen in the soil through nitrogen-fixing bacteria (like Rhizobium) in their root nodules, followed by wheat in the next season. This practice maintains soil fertility naturally.

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Differences Between Fertiliser And Manure

Manure and fertilisers differ in their composition, production, and impact on the soil, as summarised below:

Characteristic	Fertiliser	Manure
Nature	Man-made inorganic salt	Natural substance from decomposition of organic waste
Production	Prepared in factories	Prepared in fields
Humus content	Does not provide humus	Provides a lot of humus
Nutrient richness	Very rich in specific plant nutrients (N, P, K)	Relatively less rich in plant nutrients, provides balanced nutrients

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Advantages Of Manure

Organic manure is generally preferred over chemical fertilisers due to its numerous benefits for the soil:

• It significantly improves the soil's capacity to hold water.
• It makes the soil more porous, improving air circulation and facilitating gas exchange for roots.
• It increases the population of beneficial soil microorganisms that help in decomposition and nutrient cycling.
• It enhances the overall texture and structure of the soil.

Irrigation

Water is vital for the survival and proper development of all living organisms, including plants. Plants absorb water through their roots, along with essential minerals and dissolved nutrients. Plants contain a high percentage of water (nearly 90%). Water is necessary for seed germination, which does not occur in dry conditions. It also transports nutrients throughout the plant and protects crops from extreme temperatures like frost and hot air currents. Regular watering is needed to maintain soil moisture for healthy crop growth.

Irrigation is defined as the supply of water to crops at appropriate and regular intervals. The frequency and amount of irrigation required depend on the specific crop, the type of soil, and the prevailing season. Watering needs are higher in summer due to increased evaporation from the soil and plant leaves.

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Sources Of Irrigation

Various natural and artificial sources provide water for irrigation, including wells, tubewells, ponds, lakes, rivers, dams, and canals.

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Traditional Methods Of Irrigation

Before modern technology, water was lifted from sources using different manual or animal-powered methods. These traditional methods were cheaper but less efficient. Common traditional methods include:

• Moat (Pulley-system): Water is lifted using a rope and bucket with the help of a pulley, often operated manually or with animal assistance.
• Chain Pump: A system involving a chain with buckets, used to lift water from a lower level to a higher one.
• Dhekli: A lever-based system where a weight is used to assist in lifting water from a well.
• Rahat (Lever system): A more complex lever system, often powered by animals walking in a circle, turning a wheel that lifts water.

Pumps are now commonly used to lift water, powered by sources like diesel, biogas, electricity, or solar energy.

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Modern Methods Of Irrigation

Modern irrigation techniques are designed to use water more efficiently and economically. Two main modern methods are:

• Sprinkler System: This system is particularly suitable for uneven terrain where adequate water is scarce. Perpendicular pipes with rotating nozzles on top are connected to a main pipeline. When water flows under pressure through the main pipe (pumped), it escapes through the nozzles, spraying over the crop like artificial rain. It is very effective for crops like lawns, coffee plantations, and several others.
• Drip System: This method delivers water directly to the base of the plants, drop by drop. It is considered the best technique for watering fruit trees, gardens, and plants, as it minimizes water wastage. It is highly beneficial in regions with limited water availability, as water is not lost to evaporation or runoff.

Protection From Weeds

In cultivated fields, unwanted plants often grow naturally alongside the crops. These undesirable plants are called weeds. The process of removing weeds is called weeding. Weeding is essential because weeds compete with the crop plants for vital resources like water, nutrients, space, and sunlight, negatively impacting crop growth and yield. Some weeds can also interfere with harvesting or even be toxic to animals and humans.

Farmers employ various methods to control weeds:

• Tilling: Ploughing the field before sowing helps uproot and kill weeds, which then dry up and decompose in the soil.
• Manual Removal: Weeds can be physically removed by uprooting or cutting them close to the ground periodically. Tools like the khurpi are used for this purpose. Seed drills can also help uproot weeds. The most effective time to remove weeds is before they produce flowers and seeds.
• Using Weedicides: Chemicals called weedicides (e.g., 2,4-D) are sprayed in fields to kill weeds without harming the crops. Weedicides are diluted with water before spraying using a sprayer.

Farmers must be cautious when using weedicides as these chemicals can be harmful to their health. They should cover their nose and mouth with a cloth while spraying to avoid inhaling the chemicals.

Harvesting

Harvesting is the crucial task of cutting the crop once it has matured. For cereal crops, this process typically occurs after 3 to 4 months of growth. Harvesting can be done manually using a sickle or by using a machine called a harvester.

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Threshing

After harvesting, the grain seeds need to be separated from the dry outer coverings called chaff. This process is known as threshing. Threshing is often performed using a machine called a combine. A combine is a versatile machine that performs both harvesting (cutting the crop) and threshing (separating grain from chaff) simultaneously.

Sometimes, farmers burn the stubble (remains of the crop) left in the field after harvesting. This practice can cause air pollution and poses a risk of accidental fire damaging nearby crops.

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Harvest Festivals

The harvesting season is a time of great joy and celebration for farmers after months of hard work yielding a successful crop. Many special festivals across India are associated with the harvest season, such as Pongal, Baisakhi, Holi, Diwali, Nabanya, and Bihu. These festivals reflect the sense of satisfaction and well-being from a good harvest.

Storage

Storing the harvested produce properly is very important to ensure it remains safe for future use, whether as food or for sowing the next season. Grains need to be protected from moisture, insects, rodents (rats), and microorganisms like bacteria and fungi. Freshly harvested grains contain more moisture than required for safe storage.

Therefore, before storage, grains must be thoroughly dried, usually in the sun. This reduces their moisture content, which prevents spoilage and attack by pests and microorganisms. Farmers with small land holdings may separate grain from chaff using winnowing, a method involving blowing air through the mixture to separate the lighter chaff from the heavier grains.

For storage, farmers use jute bags or metallic bins. Large-scale storage of grains is done in specialized structures called silos (tall cylindrical structures) and granaries (storage buildings or rooms). These facilities are designed to protect grains from pests and microorganisms.

At home, dried neem leaves are often used as a traditional remedy to protect stored food grains from insects. For large quantities in godowns, specific chemical treatments are applied to protect the grains from pests and microorganisms.

Food From Animals

Just like plants, animals are also significant sources of food for humans. Raising and caring for animals at home or on farms on a large scale to obtain food and other products is called animal husbandry.

Different animals provide various food items:

• Milk is obtained from cows, buffaloes, goats, camels, etc.
• Eggs are obtained from poultry birds like hens.
• Meat is obtained from various animals like goats, sheep, chicken, and fish.
• Fish is a major part of the diet for people in coastal areas. Fish like cod provide cod liver oil, which is rich in vitamin D.

Similar to crop production, animal husbandry involves providing proper food, shelter, and care to the animals to ensure their health and productivity for obtaining food on a large scale.

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