Paths to Modernisation: China and Korea

China (Intro)

China’s journey to modernisation spanned over a century, marked by internal reforms, foreign aggression, revolutions, and ideological conflicts. Unlike Japan’s swift transformation, China's modernisation was fragmented and challenged by colonialism, civil wars, and ideological shifts. From the fall of the Qing dynasty to economic liberalisation under Deng Xiaoping, China's modern path reflects a complex interplay of resistance and adaptation.

The Opium Trade (China context)

During the 18th and 19th centuries, the British East India Company exported opium from India to China, leading to widespread addiction. This trade drained Chinese silver and weakened the Qing economy. China’s attempts to ban opium led to the Opium Wars (1839–42 and 1856–60), which resulted in humiliating defeats and unequal treaties, forcing China to open ports and cede territory like Hong Kong.

The Examination System (China context)

China’s imperial bureaucracy was built on a rigorous civil service examination system based on Confucian texts. While it promoted meritocracy and a literate elite, it also preserved conservative values and resisted innovation. By the late 19th century, critics saw it as a barrier to modernisation. The system was eventually abolished in 1905, signalling a move towards modern education and governance.

Establishing The Republic (China)

The Qing dynasty collapsed in 1911, and Sun Yat-sen declared a republic. However, the republic struggled due to internal divisions, warlordism, and foreign interference. The Guomindang (GMD) under Chiang Kai-shek later tried to consolidate power, but political instability persisted, eventually leading to civil war with the Communists.

The Rise Of The Communist Party Of China

The Communist Party of China (CPC) was founded in 1921. Led by Mao Zedong, it gained popular support among peasants through land reforms and resistance against Japanese invasion. After a prolonged civil war, the CPC defeated the Guomindang in 1949, leading to the establishment of the People’s Republic of China.

Establishing The New Democracy: 1949-65 (China)

After 1949, the Communist government nationalised industries, implemented land reforms, and began collectivising agriculture. The state followed a Soviet-style Five-Year Plan model to modernise. While industrial growth was significant, campaigns like the Great Leap Forward (1958–62) led to famine and setbacks. Education and healthcare were expanded, but political dissent was suppressed.

Conflicting Visions: 1965-78 (China)

This period was dominated by the Cultural Revolution (1966–76), where Mao mobilised youth to attack "bourgeois" elements. It disrupted education, persecuted intellectuals, and caused economic stagnation. After Mao’s death in 1976, China entered a period of introspection and leadership change. Moderates like Deng Xiaoping began to steer the country away from Maoist radicalism.

Reforms From 1978 (China)

Under Deng Xiaoping, China embraced market-oriented reforms while maintaining political control. The Household Responsibility System replaced collectivised farming, and Special Economic Zones (SEZs) attracted foreign investment. China experienced rapid economic growth, urbanisation, and industrialisation — becoming the world’s manufacturing hub. However, political liberalisation was limited, as seen in the Tiananmen Square protests (1989).

The Story Of Taiwan

After the Communist victory in 1949, Chiang Kai-shek’s Guomindang fled to Taiwan, establishing a separate government. Taiwan, under U.S. protection, followed a capitalist path and became an economic powerhouse in East Asia. It transitioned to democracy in the 1980s. However, China continues to view Taiwan as a breakaway province, leading to ongoing diplomatic tensions.

The Story Of Korea

Beginnings Of Modernisation

In the late 19th century, Korea attempted reforms under Japanese pressure. However, it became a colony of Japan from 1910 to 1945. Japan modernised infrastructure but also exploited Korean resources and suppressed Korean culture.

A Post-war Nation

After World War II, Korea was divided into two — North Korea (under Soviet influence) and South Korea (under U.S. influence). The Korean War (1950–53) devastated the peninsula but ended in a stalemate.

Rapid Industrialisation Under Strong Leadership

South Korea, under President Park Chung-hee (1960s–70s), underwent state-led industrialisation. Export-driven industries, like steel, electronics, and shipbuilding, transformed it into an "Asian Tiger".

Continued Economic Growth And Calls For Democratisation

South Korea’s economy flourished in the 1980s, but the authoritarian regime faced growing protests. In 1987, the country transitioned to a democratic political system through mass mobilisation and constitutional reform.

Korean Democracy And The Imf Crisis

The 1997 Asian Financial Crisis hit South Korea hard, but structural reforms and international assistance enabled recovery. Since then, South Korea has emerged as a leading democracy and innovation hub in technology, education, and popular culture.