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Social Reform Movements: Women and Caste

Women, Caste And Reform (Intro)

The 19th and early 20th centuries in India were a period of significant social and religious awakening, often referred to as the **Indian Renaissance**. This era witnessed the rise of various reform movements that sought to address the prevailing social evils and discriminatory practices rooted in tradition and religion, particularly those affecting women and lower castes.

Under British rule, Indian society faced new challenges and influences. The spread of Western education, the work of missionaries, and the exposure to liberal ideas of equality and individual rights prompted introspection among educated Indians. Reformers, both Hindu and Muslim, began to question traditional customs and beliefs that seemed irrational or unjust in the light of modern thought.

The social reform movements were not monolithic; they represented diverse approaches and concerns. However, many shared common goals:

These movements were often led by educated Indians who used newspapers, magazines, books, and public meetings to spread their ideas. They engaged in debates with orthodox sections of society who resisted change. The British government also played a role, sometimes enacting laws to support the reformers' agenda (like laws against Sati or permitting widow remarriage), often under pressure from the reformers themselves.

This period of reform laid the groundwork for future social changes and contributed significantly to the growth of national consciousness by addressing internal weaknesses within Indian society.


Working Towards Change (Women)

The status of women in 19th-century India was marked by various social disabilities and restrictive practices. Reformers recognised that improving the position of women was crucial for the overall progress of society. Key issues included Sati (widow burning), child marriage, prohibition of widow remarriage, lack of access to education, and restrictions on women's mobility and autonomy.

Reformers like **Raja Rammohun Roy** spearheaded early efforts. He was a staunch opponent of Sati and used ancient religious texts to argue that the practice was not sanctioned by tradition. His efforts, supported by the British, led to the banning of Sati in 1829.

**Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar** dedicated his life to improving the condition of widows. He argued, using ancient texts, that the Vedas sanctioned widow remarriage. His campaign led to the passing of the **Widow Remarriage Act of 1856**, which legalised the remarriage of Hindu widows. Although the law was passed, opposition from orthodox sections made it difficult for remarrying widows to be accepted in society.

Girls Begin Going To School

One of the major challenges was the lack of education for girls. Most girls were denied schooling. Even reformers faced strong resistance when they tried to set up schools for girls. People feared that sending girls to school would take them away from their homes, prevent them from doing domestic work, and even corrupt them by exposing them to public places.

Reformers like Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar in Calcutta and many others in different parts of India persisted. Vidyasagar, with the help of other reformers, helped establish several girls' schools. The first schools for girls were often set up in the latter half of the 19th century. Missionaries also played a role in establishing schools for girls.

Gradually, by the late 19th century, schools for girls were established in cities like Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay. Initially, these schools were attended by girls from elite families. Muslim girls were even less likely to attend schools. Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain started schools for Muslim girls in Patna and Calcutta in the early 20th century.

The spread of education, though slow, was a crucial step in empowering women.

Women Write About Women

With the spread of education, albeit limited, women themselves began to write about their experiences, frustrations, and the need for change. This was a powerful development as it provided firsthand accounts of the lives of women.

In the early 20th century, women like **Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain** wrote extensively about the inequalities faced by women. Her satirical writings, such as 'Sultana's Dream', envisioned a world where women had freedom and control over their lives. **Pandita Ramabai**, a renowned scholar of Sanskrit, founded a widows' home in Pune to provide shelter and training for widows, enabling them to become self-sufficient. She also wrote about the plight of upper-caste Hindu women, particularly widows.

Many women started their own magazines or wrote for existing ones, discussing issues of education, marriage, family life, and the need for women's rights. These writings created a space for women's voices and consciousness, contributing to the broader reform movement.

Law Against Child Marriage

Child marriage was another deeply entrenched practice that reformers targeted. Many girls were married off at a very young age, often before puberty. This had severe consequences for their health and denied them opportunities for education and personal development.

Reformers consistently campaigned against child marriage, highlighting its harmful effects. Their efforts led to legal interventions by the British government. The **Age of Consent Act in 1891** raised the age of consent for marriage for girls to 12 years. Later, the **Child Marriage Restraint Act of 1929**, popularly known as the **Sarda Act** (named after its proponent Harbilas Sarda), fixed the minimum age of marriage for girls at 14 and for boys at 18. These laws, though often difficult to enforce, were important steps in challenging a harmful social practice.

These movements for women's rights and education continued into the 20th century, gaining momentum with the rise of the nationalist movement, where women also played a significant role.


Caste And Social Reform

The caste system was perhaps the most rigid and discriminatory social hierarchy in India. It divided people based on birth into distinct groups (varnas and jatis), assigning them specific occupations and social status. At the bottom of this hierarchy were the Dalits or so-called "untouchables," who faced severe discrimination, exclusion, and oppression.

Reformers recognised the injustice and inhumanity of the caste system and worked towards its abolition or reform. Their efforts ranged from challenging the religious basis of caste to demanding equal rights and opportunities for lower castes.

Demands For Equality And Justice

Many reformers argued that caste discrimination was against the principles of humanity and justice. They pointed out that all human beings are equal regardless of their birth. Some used religious scriptures themselves to argue against caste, stating that true religion did not sanction such discrimination. Others drew upon Western liberal ideas of equality.

Prominent figures in the anti-caste movement included **Jyotirao Phule** (Maharashtra), **Shri Narayana Guru** (Kerala), **E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker (Periyar)** (Tamil Nadu), and later **B.R. Ambedkar**. They challenged the dominance of the Brahmin caste, who were often seen as custodians of religious texts and traditional knowledge, which they used to justify the caste system.

Gulamgiri

**Jyotirao Phule** (1827-1890) was a key figure in the anti-caste movement in Maharashtra. He belonged to the Mali caste (gardeners), which was considered low caste. He founded the **Satnami Samaj** in 1873, an association that preached equality among castes.

In 1873, Phule wrote a book titled **Gulamgiri** (Slavery). In this book, he drew a connection between the condition of the lower castes in India and the condition of enslaved people in America. He dedicated his book to all those who fought against slavery. This comparison highlighted the depth of oppression faced by the lower castes, whom he referred to as Shudras and Ati Shudras.

Phule argued that the upper castes, particularly Brahmins, had historically oppressed the lower castes. He believed that the Aryan invasion theory explained the origin of the caste system, where the Aryans (upper castes) subjugated the indigenous people (lower castes). He campaigned for the rights of peasants and lower castes and advocated for their education.

Who Could Enter Temples?

Access to temples was a significant issue for lower castes. Traditionally, Dalits were denied entry into temples and access to public wells and tanks. Temple entry movements became a crucial part of the anti-caste struggle, symbolising the demand for dignity and equal rights.

Leaders like **Shri Narayana Guru** (1854-1928) from Kerala, who belonged to the Ezhava caste (considered untouchable), challenged the caste-based restrictions on temple entry. He founded the **Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam (SNDP)** and preached the idea of "one caste, one religion, one God for humankind." He established his own temples where people of all castes could worship. The Vaikom Satyagraha (1924-25) in Kerala was a famous movement demanding the right of lower castes to use roads adjoining temples.

Later, B.R. Ambedkar led the **Mahad Satyagraha** in 1927 to assert the right of Dalits to use water from a public tank. Temple entry movements gained momentum in various parts of India, challenging the religious and social exclusion of the lower castes.

The Non-Brahman Movement

In the early 20th century, particularly in South India, the **Non-Brahman Movement** gained prominence. This movement originated among non-Brahmin castes who felt that Brahmins dominated education, government jobs, and political power despite being a numerical minority.

Leaders like **E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker (Periyar)** challenged the dominance of Brahmins and questioned the religious texts that they believed upheld the caste system. Periyar founded the **Self-Respect Movement**, which advocated for a society where backward castes could live with self-respect, free from Brahminical dominance. The movement criticised Hindu scriptures and traditions that supported caste hierarchy.

The Non-Brahman movement sought social equality and also demanded reservations in education and government employment for non-Brahmins. It was a significant assertion of identity and rights by the intermediate and lower castes.

Organising For Reform

The reform movements were often organised through various societies and associations. These organisations provided a platform for reformers to propagate their ideas, mobilise support, and pressure the government or society for change.

Here are some of the key reform organisations:

The Brahmo Samaj

Founded by **Raja Rammohun Roy** in 1828 (initially as Brahmo Sabha), the Brahmo Samaj was one of the earliest reform societies. It advocated for monotheism (worship of one God) and opposed idolatry, caste system, Sati, child marriage, and other social evils. It drew inspiration from the Upanishads and also incorporated ideas from other religions.

After Rammohun Roy's death, **Debendranath Tagore** and later **Keshab Chandra Sen** led the Brahmo Samaj. Internal differences led to splits in the organisation, but it played a pioneering role in introducing modern reformist ideas.

Derozio And Young Bengal

**Henry Louis Vivian Derozio** (1809-1831) was a teacher at Hindu College, Calcutta. He was of Indo-Portuguese origin and a radical thinker. He inspired his students, who came to be known as the **Young Bengal Movement**. They questioned all authority, traditions, and customs. They advocated for freedom of thought and expression, women's rights, and criticised the caste system and idolatry.

Though short-lived due to Derozio's early death and the expulsion of his followers from Hindu College, the Young Bengal movement represented a radical intellectual awakening and a sharp critique of social evils.

The Ramakrishna Mission And Swami Vivekananda

The Ramakrishna Mission was founded by **Swami Vivekananda** (1863-1902) in 1897, named after his guru Ramakrishna Paramahamsa. While rooted in Hindu spiritual traditions, the Mission focused on humanitarian service and social reform. Swami Vivekananda spread the message of universal brotherhood, religious tolerance, and the strength of Indian culture.

He criticised the caste system and untouchability, advocating for the upliftment of the poor and the downtrodden. He believed that service to humanity was service to God. The Mission established schools, hospitals, and provided relief during natural calamities, embodying a practical approach to spirituality and social work.

The Prarthana Samaj

The Prarthana Samaj was founded in Bombay in 1867 by **Atmaram Pandurang**, inspired by the Brahmo Samaj. Prominent leaders included **Mahadev Govind Ranade** and **R.G. Bhandarkar**. It also preached monotheism and focused on social reforms such as opposing caste hierarchy, promoting widow remarriage and women's education, and campaigning against child marriage.

The Prarthana Samaj had a significant influence in Maharashtra and aimed at reforming Hindu society from within.

The Veda Samaj

Established in Madras in 1864, the Veda Samaj was inspired by the Brahmo Samaj. Leaders like **K. Sridharalu Naidu** promoted similar reforms in South India. It rejected the caste system and Hindu rituals and encouraged widow remarriage and women's education. The Veda Samaj believed in one God.

Over time, the Veda Samaj evolved into the Brahmo Samaj of South India.

The Aligarh Movement

Among Muslims, a prominent reform movement was the Aligarh Movement, led by **Sir Syed Ahmed Khan** (1817-1898). He aimed to modernise Muslim education and society.

Sir Syed founded the **Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College** in Aligarh in 1875 (which later became Aligarh Muslim University). His goal was to combine Western scientific education with Islamic teachings. He encouraged Muslims to study English and modern sciences and to participate in government services. He also advocated against social evils prevalent in Muslim society.

The Aligarh Movement played a crucial role in the intellectual and educational awakening of the Muslim community in India.

The Singh Sabha Movement

Among Sikhs, the Singh Sabha Movement emerged in Punjab in the 1870s. Its primary objectives were to revitalise Sikhism, promote Sikh education, and counter the activities of Christian missionaries and Hindu reformers who were trying to absorb Sikhs.

The movement established Khalsa schools and colleges, published literature in Punjabi, and worked to define Sikh identity and practices clearly based on the teachings of the Gurus, while also advocating for social reforms within the community.

These diverse reform movements, though sometimes conflicting in their approaches, collectively challenged the social hierarchies and oppressive practices prevalent in Indian society, paving the way for a more equitable and just future.