The Gandhian Era: Early Movements

The Growth Of Mass Nationalism (Intro - Gandhi's Advent)

The early 20th century witnessed a transformation in Indian nationalism. Until 1919, the nationalist movement was largely confined to professionals, intellectuals, and the educated middle class. However, with the advent of Mahatma Gandhi, nationalism became a mass movement, drawing in millions of peasants, workers, artisans, students, and women from different parts of the country. The First World War created a conducive environment for this transition.

The Advent Of Mahatma Gandhi

**Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi** returned to India in January 1915 after spending over two decades in South Africa. In South Africa, he had successfully fought against the racist regime using a novel method of mass agitation called **Satyagraha**. This experience had made him a respected leader internationally.

Upon his return, Gandhi spent his first year in India travelling across the country, understanding the conditions of the people, their problems, and the political situation. He initially involved himself in localised struggles before launching nationwide movements.

The Rowlatt Satyagraha

In 1919, the British government passed the **Rowlatt Act**, which curbed fundamental rights such as the freedom of expression and strengthened police powers. This Act was deeply unpopular and met with widespread opposition. Gandhi decided to launch a Satyagraha against this unjust law. He called for a nationwide **hartal** (strike) on 6th April 1919.

The response to the call for hartal was unprecedented. Shops closed down, schools and colleges were shut, and processions were taken out in various towns and cities. The agitation was particularly strong in Punjab, where prominent leaders were arrested. This led to further protests and violent clashes in some areas.

The most tragic incident occurred on 13th April 1919 at **Jallianwala Bagh** in Amritsar. A large, unarmed crowd had gathered, including women and children, to protest against the arrests and attend a local festival. General Dyer ordered his troops to block the exit points and open fire on the crowd. Hundreds were killed in cold blood. The Jallianwala Bagh massacre sent a wave of shock and anger throughout the country.

Following the massacre, martial law was imposed in Punjab. The brutality of the British response, including public flogging and forced crawling, further outraged the Indian population. While the Rowlatt Satyagraha was eventually withdrawn by Gandhi due to the violence, it was the first nationwide protest against British rule and demonstrated Gandhi's ability to mobilise people on a large scale.

Picture of the Jallianwala Bagh memorial or scene of the massacre

Khilafat Agitation And The Non-Cooperation Movement

In the years following 1919, Gandhi decided to launch a more ambitious movement to broaden the base of nationalist resistance. He saw an opportunity for unity in the **Khilafat issue**. After the First World War, the Ottoman Turkish Empire was defeated, and the British imposed a harsh treaty on the Ottoman Sultan (Khalifa), who was regarded by many Muslims as their spiritual leader.

Muslim leaders in India, led by the **Ali Brothers (Maulana Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali)**, launched the **Khilafat Movement** to protest against the injustice done to the Khalifa and to demand that the Khalifa be allowed to retain control over Muslim sacred places. Gandhi supported the Khilafat Movement and saw it as an opportunity to bring Hindus and Muslims together under a common cause.

Building upon the momentum of the Khilafat agitation and the widespread anger over the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, Gandhi called for a **Non-Cooperation Movement**. At the Nagpur session of the Congress in December 1920, the Non-Cooperation programme was adopted.

The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22) aimed to:

Boycott British institutions, including schools, colleges, courts, and legislative councils.
Surrender British titles and honours.
Boycott foreign goods.
Promote the use of Swadeshi (indigenous) goods.
Spin Charkha (spinning wheel) and weave Khadi (homespun cloth).
Encourage Hindu-Muslim unity.
Remove untouchability.

The movement was intended to be non-violent. Gandhi believed that if Indians refused to cooperate, British rule would collapse, and Swaraj would be achieved within a year.

People’s Initiatives

The Non-Cooperation Movement unleashed a wave of popular initiative across the country. People interpreted Gandhi's call for non-cooperation and the idea of Swaraj in their own ways, often linking it to their local grievances.

In many areas, peasants refused to pay taxes.
Tribals in Andhra Pradesh revolted against forest laws.
Workers went on strike.
Students left government schools and colleges.
Lawyers gave up their practices.
Merchants boycotted foreign trade.

The movement took diverse forms in different regions, reflecting the specific issues faced by local populations. While Gandhi preached non-violence, the movement was not always peaceful, as local frustrations sometimes erupted into violence.

The People’s Mahatma

Gandhi became a deeply popular leader among the masses. He was referred to as "Mahatma" (great soul). His simple lifestyle, use of the spinning wheel, and focus on issues like untouchability resonated with ordinary Indians. People saw him as a saviour who could help them overcome poverty, disease, and colonial oppression.

Rumours spread about his miraculous powers, sometimes exaggerating his influence. For instance, it was rumoured that he could ward off evil spirits or that the King of England trembled before him. These stories reflected the hopes and aspirations that people projected onto him, seeing him as a figure who could deliver them from hardship.

The Happenings Of 1922-1929

In February 1922, the Non-Cooperation Movement was abruptly called off by Gandhi after a violent incident at **Chauri Chaura** in Uttar Pradesh, where protestors set fire to a police station, killing several policemen. Gandhi felt that the movement was turning violent and that the people were not yet ready for a non-violent struggle. This decision was criticised by many leaders who felt the movement was at its peak.

After the withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement, Gandhi was arrested in March 1922 and sentenced to prison. The nationalist movement entered a period of introspection and reorganisation.

In the mid-1920s, several developments occurred:

The Congress leaders debated the future course of action. Some, like Motilal Nehru and C.R. Das, formed the Swaraj Party to participate in the legislative councils.
Social reform work continued, with leaders focusing on promoting Khadi, Hindu-Muslim unity, and anti-untouchability efforts.
Revolutionary activities also saw a resurgence, with figures like Bhagat Singh emerging on the scene.
The formation of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) in 1925 and the Communist Party of India (CPI) in 1925 reflected new ideological currents.

Towards the late 1920s, political activity intensified again. The formation of the **Simon Commission** in 1927, which had no Indian members and was set up to review India's constitutional progress, was met with widespread protests ("Simon Go Back"). In 1929, the Congress, under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, passed the historic resolution for **Purna Swaraj** (complete independence) at its Lahore session. This set the stage for the next major phase of the nationalist struggle under Gandhi's leadership.

A Leader Announces Himself (Gandhi Intro)

Mahatma Gandhi's return to India in 1915 marked a turning point in the history of the Indian nationalist movement. He had already gained renown for his struggle in South Africa against racial discrimination using the principles of Satyagraha (truth-force and non-violence). His reputation as a determined and effective leader preceded him.

Unlike many nationalist leaders of the time who were based in urban centres and primarily appealed to the educated elite, Gandhi connected with the masses. He travelled widely, dressed simply like an ordinary Indian peasant, and spoke in a language that common people could understand. His emphasis on truth, non-violence, and simple living resonated deeply with rural populations.

His early interventions in local disputes, such as the Champaran Satyagraha in Bihar (1917), the Kheda Satyagraha in Gujarat (1918), and the Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918), demonstrated his method of non-violent resistance and his commitment to fighting for the rights of peasants and workers. These movements, though regional, brought him into contact with the problems faced by ordinary Indians and helped him build a base among them.

Through these initial struggles, Gandhi honed his techniques of mass mobilisation and peaceful resistance, preparing the ground for leading the nationwide movements that would define the struggle for India's independence.

The Making And Unmaking Of Non-Cooperation

The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22) was the first major nationwide movement led by Gandhi. It aimed to achieve Swaraj through non-violent resistance and the withdrawal of cooperation from the British government. The movement gained immense popularity and spread rapidly across the country, bringing millions into the fold of the nationalist struggle.

Knitting A Popular Movement

Gandhi's leadership was instrumental in transforming the nationalist movement into a mass movement. He achieved this by:

Simplifying the Message: He spoke in simple language, using concepts that ordinary people could relate to, such as Ram Rajya (ideal rule) and Swaraj (self-rule), which were often interpreted locally to mean freedom from oppression and injustice.
Connecting with Local Grievances: He linked the national struggle to specific local issues, such as peasant grievances against landlords or tribal issues with forest laws, thereby mobilising diverse sections of society.
Promoting Swadeshi and Khadi: The emphasis on boycotting foreign goods and promoting Khadi gave the movement a tangible symbol of resistance and provided an economic programme that could involve rural populations (spinning and weaving).
Inclusivity: By supporting the Khilafat Movement, he brought Muslims into the mainstream of the nationalist struggle. His campaign against untouchability aimed to include the lowest castes.
Organisational Efforts: The Congress structure was reorganised, with committees set up at provincial, district, and village levels, facilitating wider participation.

Through these methods, Gandhi successfully "knitted" together diverse groups and grievances into a single, powerful national movement.

A People’S Leader

Gandhi's image as a 'people's leader' was central to the success of the Non-Cooperation Movement. He was not an aloof, Western-educated elite; he was seen as someone who lived and struggled like the common people.

His simple dress (dhoti) was a stark contrast to the formal attire of other leaders and identified him with the poor.
His emphasis on the Charkha and Khadi symbolised self-reliance and dignity of labour, which resonated with the masses.
His fasts and willingness to suffer for the cause were seen as acts of great moral strength and dedication.

Stories and rumours circulating among the people further enhanced his image as a saintly figure with extraordinary powers, reinforcing their faith in his leadership and the movement.

However, despite the widespread enthusiasm and participation, the movement was eventually called off due to the outbreak of violence at Chauri Chaura. This decision highlights the fundamental challenge Gandhi faced in maintaining strict non-violence in a mass movement that involved millions of people with diverse motivations and interpretations of the struggle.

Differing Strands Within The Movement (Non-Cooperation)

While the Non-Cooperation Movement was led by the Indian National Congress under Gandhi's guidance, it was not a monolithic movement. People from different sections of society participated for various reasons, often interpreting the call for 'Swaraj' in ways that aligned with their specific needs and aspirations. This led to different "strands" of the movement unfolding in various regions.

The Movement In The Towns

In urban areas, the Non-Cooperation Movement began with the participation of the middle class. Thousands of students left government-controlled schools and colleges. Headmasters and teachers resigned. Lawyers gave up their legal practices. This was accompanied by the boycott of British titles, honours, and foreign goods.

The boycott of foreign cloth was particularly successful. Large bonfires of foreign cloth were organised. This boosted the demand for Indian textiles and handloom, leading to an increase in production by Indian mills and handlooms.

However, the movement in towns also faced challenges. The boycott of British institutions created a problem of finding alternative Indian institutions. As the movement progressed and the economic hardship due to boycotts increased, some sections of the urban middle class, particularly students and lawyers, began to drift back to government institutions.

Rebellion In The Countryside

The Non-Cooperation Movement spread rapidly to the countryside, taking on different forms depending on local conditions and grievances.

Peasant Movements: In many areas, peasants participated in movements against high rents, illegal evictions, and the oppressive practices of landlords (zamindars). In Awadh, for example, peasants were led by Baba Ramchandra, a Sanyasi, against talukdars (landlords) who demanded exorbitant rents and labour (begar) without payment. The peasant movement demanded reduction of revenue, abolition of begar, and social boycott of oppressive landlords. Peasants sometimes resorted to violent actions, like attacking landlords' houses and looting markets, despite Gandhi's call for non-violence.
Tribal Uprisings: Tribal people, who were dependent on forests for their livelihood, were severely affected by the new forest laws implemented by the British. These laws restricted their access to forests for grazing cattle, collecting firewood, and collecting forest produce. In the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh, a militant guerrilla movement spread in the early 1920s under the leadership of Alluri Sitaram Raju. Raju claimed to have special powers and preached Gandhian ideas, but also believed in the use of force. Tribal people attacked police stations and carried on guerrilla warfare for achieving Swaraj.

These rural movements, while drawing inspiration from Gandhi's call for Swaraj, often went beyond the scope and methods defined by the Congress, reflecting the intense local oppression faced by peasants and tribals.

Swaraj In The Plantations

For plantation workers, particularly in Assam, the idea of Swaraj meant the right to move freely in and out of the confined areas where they worked. Under the **Inland Emigration Act of 1859**, plantation workers were not permitted to leave the tea gardens without permission, which was rarely granted.

Inspired by the Non-Cooperation Movement and the idea of Swaraj, thousands of plantation workers defied the authorities and left the plantations, heading home. They believed that Gandhi Raj was coming and everyone would be given land in their villages. They faced brutal repression by the police, who caught and beat them up.

These varying interpretations and expressions of the Non-Cooperation Movement highlight how Gandhi's message resonated with different sections of Indian society, who adapted it to suit their own contexts and struggles against various forms of oppression under colonial rule.