Civil Disobedience and Quit India

Towards Civil Disobedience

Following the withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement and a period of political inactivity and introspection in the mid-1920s, the Indian nationalist movement gained momentum again towards the end of the decade. Several factors contributed to this resurgence, setting the stage for another major phase of struggle led by Mahatma Gandhi – the Civil Disobedience Movement.

The appointment of the **Simon Commission** in 1927, which had no Indian members and was tasked with suggesting further constitutional reforms for India, was met with outrage. The slogan "Simon Go Back" echoed across the country as people from all walks of life protested the exclusion of Indians from the process of deciding their own future.

In December 1929, under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, the Indian National Congress adopted the resolution for **'Purna Swaraj' (Complete Independence)** at its Lahore session. This marked a shift from the earlier demand for Swaraj within the British Empire to a clear goal of total independence. It was also decided that 26th January would be celebrated as 'Independence Day' every year (which is why it was later chosen as Republic Day).

Gandhi was entrusted with the responsibility of launching a new movement to achieve Purna Swaraj. He decided to use the issue of salt to mobilise the masses.

The Salt March And The Civil Disobedience Movement

The British government had a monopoly on the production and sale of salt, and it levied a heavy tax on it. Salt was an essential commodity consumed by everyone, rich or poor. Gandhi saw the salt tax as one of the most oppressive acts of the British government and decided to make it the symbol of resistance.

In January 1930, Gandhi presented an eleven-point ultimatum to the Viceroy, Lord Irwin, demanding various administrative reforms, including the abolition of the salt tax. He stated that if his demands were not met by 11th March, he would launch a campaign of civil disobedience.

The British government did not respond favourably. On **12th March 1930**, Gandhi, accompanied by 78 trusted volunteers, began his historic **Salt March** from his Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad to Dandi, a village on the coast of Gujarat. The march covered a distance of approximately 240 miles (around 385 kilometres) and took 24 days.

As Gandhi and his followers marched, they were joined by thousands of people. Village officials resigned their posts, and villagers welcomed the marchers with enthusiasm. On **6th April 1930**, Gandhi reached Dandi and symbolically broke the salt law by collecting salt from the beach. This act marked the formal beginning of the **Civil Disobedience Movement**.

The breaking of the salt law sparked widespread civil disobedience across the country. People began manufacturing salt illegally, picketing liquor shops, boycotting foreign cloth, and refusing to pay taxes. The movement spread rapidly, involving lakhs of people in various forms of protest.

How Participants Saw The Movement

Different social groups participated in the Civil Disobedience Movement with their own aspirations and understanding of Swaraj:

• Rich Peasants (e.g., Patidars of Gujarat, Jats of Uttar Pradesh): For them, Swaraj meant a reduction in revenue demand. They were hard hit by the agricultural depression and falling prices. They were enthusiastic supporters and actively participated by boycotting foreign goods and organising their communities. However, when the movement was suspended (after Gandhi-Irwin Pact), they were disappointed when the revenue rates were not immediately revised.
• Poor Peasants: Many poor peasants were tenants cultivating land rented from landlords. Their 'Swaraj' often meant a reduction in rent and sometimes demanding remission of rent. They participated in radical movements, often organised by socialists and communists, which went beyond the Congress programme, sometimes demanding no-rent campaigns. The Congress was sometimes reluctant to support these radical demands fully for fear of alienating rich peasants and landlords.
• Business Classes: Indian industrialists and merchants were hit by colonial policies that restricted their business activities and encouraged British imports. They wanted protection against foreign imports, a favourable exchange ratio, and freedom to conduct trade without colonial restrictions. They supported the movement, formed organisations like the Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress (1920) and the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industries (FICCI, 1927), and often provided financial assistance. However, they became cautious when the movement became violent or prolonged, fearing disruption of business.
• Industrial Workers: The industrial working class, particularly in areas like Nagpur, participated in the boycott programmes and strikes. However, their participation was not as widespread as that of peasants or urban middle classes, partly due to the Congress's hesitation to include workers' demands in its programme for fear of alienating industrialists.
• Women: Women participated in large numbers, especially in urban areas from high-caste families and in rural areas from rich peasant households. They marched in processions, picketed liquor and foreign cloth shops, and even went to jail. Their participation was a significant step towards greater recognition of women's role in public life. Gandhi saw women's participation as essential for the non-violent nature of the movement.

These varied perspectives highlight the complex social dynamics underlying the nationalist movement and the challenge for Congress to accommodate the diverse demands of different groups.

The Limits Of Civil Disobedience

While the Civil Disobedience Movement was a broad-based movement, it did not involve all sections of society equally. Certain groups felt alienated or had reservations about joining the Congress-led struggle:

• Dalits (Depressed Classes): For Dalit leaders like **Dr. B.R. Ambedkar**, the struggle against untouchability was paramount. They saw political empowerment and separate electorates as crucial for their upliftment, not just Swaraj achieved through Congress-led movements. Ambedkar formed the **Depressed Classes Association** in 1930 and clashed with Gandhi at the Second Round Table Conference over the issue of separate electorates for Dalits. Gandhi opposed separate electorates as he believed they would permanently segregate Dalits from the rest of society. This conflict led to the **Poona Pact of 1932**, where Ambedkar eventually accepted reserved seats for Dalits in provincial and central legislative councils within the general electorate, instead of separate electorates, following Gandhi's fast unto death.
• Muslims: The relationship between the Congress and Muslim political organisations was strained after the decline of the Khilafat Movement. Many Muslims felt that the Congress primarily represented Hindu interests. Growing communal differences and the demands of organisations like the Muslim League for political safeguards for minorities meant that many Muslims did not participate in the Civil Disobedience Movement in large numbers.

The movement, therefore, reflected the aspirations of many but also exposed the underlying social and political cleavages within Indian society that the nationalist movement struggled to bridge entirely.

The Salt Satyagraha A Case Study

The Salt Satyagraha, commencing with the Dandi March, was a masterstroke by Mahatma Gandhi. It was a symbolic and impactful way to initiate the Civil Disobedience Movement, bringing the abstract demand for 'Purna Swaraj' into the realm of concrete action that resonated with the common people.

Dandi

The journey to Dandi was carefully planned. Gandhi chose 78 volunteers, representing various parts of India, to accompany him on the march. The group started from Sabarmati Ashram on March 12, 1930. The march route passed through several villages, where Gandhi addressed the villagers, explaining the purpose of the movement and urging them to join the non-violent struggle.

The march generated immense public enthusiasm. News of the march spread like wildfire, attracting large crowds who came to see Gandhi and his followers. The march received extensive coverage in both the Indian and international press, highlighting the non-violent nature of the protest against an unjust law.

On 6th April 1930, after traversing approximately 240 miles over 24 days, Gandhi reached Dandi and broke the salt law by picking up a lump of salt from the seashore. This simple act was powerful; it challenged the British monopoly on salt and symbolised the Indian people's right to a basic necessity.

The breaking of the salt law at Dandi triggered similar acts of civil disobedience across the country. People manufactured salt, picketed shops, and protested against colonial rules. The government responded with brutal repression, arresting thousands of people, including prominent leaders.

Dialogues

The scale of the Civil Disobedience Movement and the widespread arrests forced the British government to seek a dialogue. In 1931, Viceroy Lord Irwin held talks with Gandhi, resulting in the **Gandhi-Irwin Pact**.

According to the Pact:

• Gandhi agreed to suspend the Civil Disobedience Movement.
• Congress agreed to participate in the Second Round Table Conference in London.
• The government agreed to release all political prisoners, except those guilty of violence.
• The government also agreed to allow people living near coastal areas to make salt for personal consumption (not for sale).

Gandhi attended the Second Round Table Conference in London in September 1931 as the sole representative of the Congress. However, the conference was inconclusive, as the British were unwilling to concede the demand for Purna Swaraj, and there were disagreements among the Indian delegates regarding the representation of different communities.

Upon his return, Gandhi found that the government had started a new cycle of repression. The Congress had been banned, and leaders were arrested. Consequently, Gandhi decided to relaunch the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1932. However, the movement did not regain the same momentum as before and was eventually officially withdrawn in 1934.

Despite the formal withdrawal, the movement had a lasting impact. It further mobilised the masses, increased anti-British sentiment, and demonstrated the potential of non-violent resistance on a national scale. It also put pressure on the British government, forcing them to engage with Indian political leaders.

Quit India And Later

The period after the Civil Disobedience Movement saw significant political developments. The Government of India Act of 1935 introduced provincial autonomy, leading to Congress ministries being formed in several provinces in 1937. However, the outbreak of the **Second World War** in 1939 dramatically altered the political landscape.

The British government, without consulting Indian leaders, unilaterally declared that India was a party to the war on the side of the Allies. The Congress was critical of this decision and demanded that India be granted independence after the war in return for its support. The British response was seen as inadequate.

In 1942, as the Second World War intensified and Japan advanced towards India's borders, the British government sent the **Cripps Mission** to India to negotiate with Indian leaders. The Cripps Mission offered Dominion Status after the war but did not meet the demand for immediate self-rule or a clear promise of independence. The Congress rejected the Cripps proposal, finding it too little and too late ("a post-dated cheque on a crashing bank," in Gandhi's words).

The failure of the Cripps Mission, coupled with growing frustration over British rule and the economic hardships caused by the war, led Gandhi to decide on a decisive mass movement. This culminated in the call for the **Quit India Movement**.

Quit India (Movement)

The **Quit India Movement**, also known as the August Movement, was launched in August 1942. It was arguably the most serious rebellion against British rule since the Revolt of 1857.

On 8th August 1942, the All India Congress Committee (AICC) met in Bombay and passed the historic **'Quit India' resolution**. The resolution called for an immediate end to British rule in India. Speaking at the Gowalia Tank maidan (now August Kranti Maidan) in Bombay, Gandhi gave the stirring call: **"Do or Die"** (Karo ya Maro). He urged the masses to act as independent individuals and decide for themselves what course of action to take in the non-violent struggle for independence.

The British government responded swiftly and brutally. Within hours of the resolution being passed, most of the prominent Congress leaders, including Gandhi, Nehru, Patel, and Azad, were arrested. This leadership vacuum meant that the movement, though initiated by the Congress, became largely spontaneous and decentralised.

The 'Quit India' call resonated deeply with the masses. People interpreted 'Do or Die' as a call for ultimate sacrifice to achieve independence. Without central leadership, the movement unfolded in various ways across the country:

• Mass Protests and Demonstrations: There were widespread strikes in factories, schools, and colleges. People participated in large-scale demonstrations and processions.
• Attacks on Symbols of Authority: Enraged crowds attacked government buildings, police stations, post offices, railway stations, and other symbols of British authority. Communication and transport lines (railway tracks, telegraph wires) were disrupted.
• Underground Activities: Many leaders who evaded arrest, such as Jayaprakash Narayan and Aruna Asaf Ali, went underground and continued to organise resistance.
• Formation of Parallel Governments: In some areas, like Satara in Maharashtra and Ballia in Uttar Pradesh, parallel governments were even established for a short period.

The government unleashed severe repression to crush the movement. Thousands were arrested, public flogging was common, villages were bombed (e.g., in Bihar), and heavy fines were imposed. Despite the brutal suppression, the Quit India Movement demonstrated the deep desire for independence among the Indian people and the extent to which they were willing to go to achieve it. It also showed that the era of British rule was nearing its end.

The Last Heroic Days (Gandhi's last phase)

The Quit India Movement brought the struggle for independence to a decisive stage. The war ended in 1945, and the British government initiated steps towards granting independence to India. However, the final years leading up to August 1947 were marked by complex negotiations, the rise of the demand for Pakistan, and escalating communal violence.

While other leaders engaged in political negotiations for the transfer of power, Gandhi's primary focus in these 'last heroic days' was on preventing communal violence and promoting Hindu-Muslim unity. He was deeply distressed by the growing divide and the outbreaks of riots in various parts of the country, particularly in Bengal (Noakhali) and Bihar.

Gandhi travelled to the riot-affected areas, walking barefoot, trying to bring peace and solace to the victims. He used his method of fasting as a powerful tool to appeal to the conscience of the people and stop the violence. His fasts often had a profound impact, temporarily halting the bloodshed in areas like Calcutta (now Kolkata) and Delhi.

He opposed the Partition of India vehemently, seeing it as a vivisection of the motherland and a betrayal of his lifelong efforts for Hindu-Muslim unity. However, as communal passions rose and the political situation became uncontrollable, other leaders reluctantly accepted Partition as the only way to achieve independence without further bloodshed (though Partition itself led to unprecedented violence).

Even amidst the celebrations of India's independence on 15th August 1947, Gandhi was not in Delhi. He was in Calcutta, working to stop the communal violence that had erupted there. His efforts were remarkable and earned him admiration even from those who had previously opposed him.

Tragically, Gandhi's life dedicated to peace and non-violence ended violently. On 30th January 1948, he was assassinated by Nathuram Godse, a Hindu extremist who was opposed to Gandhi's efforts to promote communal harmony and his perceived concessions to Muslims.

Gandhi's last days, marked by his lonely crusade for peace amidst the madness of communal violence and the pain of partition, are often seen as his most heroic. He continued to fight for the principles of non-violence, truth, and unity until his very last breath, leaving behind a legacy that continues to inspire the world.