| Non-Rationalised Psychology NCERT Notes, Solutions and Extra Q & A (Class 11th & 12th) | |||||||||||||||||||
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Class 11th Psychology NCERT Notes, NCERT Question Solutions and Extra Q & A (Non-Rationalised)
1. What Is Psychology?
This introductory chapter defines Psychology as the scientific discipline that studies mental processes, experiences, and behaviours in different contexts. It traces the evolution of psychology from its philosophical roots (the study of the soul or mind) to its emergence as a modern science in the late 19th century. The chapter highlights that psychology is not just about mental disorders but covers a vast range of human activities. It introduces various sub-fields, such as Clinical Psychology, Counselling Psychology, Educational Psychology, Organisational Psychology, and Sports Psychology, showcasing its wide-ranging applications. The chapter emphasizes that psychology's goal is to describe, explain, predict, and ultimately help in changing behaviour to improve the quality of human life.
2. Methods Of Enquiry In Psychology
This chapter explains the various scientific methods of enquiry that psychologists use to study behaviour and mental processes systematically. It outlines the goals of psychological enquiry: description, prediction, explanation, and control of behaviour. The chapter details several research methods. The Experimental Method is highlighted as the only method that can establish cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating an independent variable to see its effect on a dependent variable. Other important methods include Observation (naturalistic and controlled), Correlational Research (which measures the relationship between two variables but does not imply causation), Surveys, Psychological Testing, and in-depth Case Studies. The chapter also stresses the critical importance of adhering to ethical principles, such as informed consent and confidentiality, in all psychological research.
3. The Bases Of Human Behaviour
This chapter explores the biological and socio-cultural foundations that shape human behaviour. On the biological front, it examines the structure and function of the nervous system, explaining how neurons (nerve cells) transmit information and how different parts of the brain (like the cerebrum and its lobes) control various psychological functions. The role of the endocrine system and hormones is also discussed. The chapter then shifts to the powerful influence of culture, which provides a context for our development and behaviour through processes like socialisation and enculturation. It emphasizes that human behaviour is a complex product of the continuous interaction between our biological inheritance (nature) and our environmental and cultural experiences (nurture).
4. Human Development
This chapter focuses on Human Development, the study of predictable and orderly changes in individuals from conception to death. It explores development across different domains—physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional—and through various life stages like infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. The chapter introduces influential developmental theories, including Jean Piaget's stages of cognitive development (Sensorimotor, Preoperational, etc.) and Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development (e.g., Identity vs. Role Confusion in adolescence). It highlights the critical roles of both heredity (nature) and environment (nurture) in shaping an individual's developmental trajectory, providing a comprehensive understanding of the human life span.
5. Sensory, Attentional And Perceptual Processes
This chapter explains how we make sense of the world around us. It breaks down the process into three interconnected stages. Sensory Processes involve our sense organs (eyes, ears, etc.) detecting and receiving stimuli from the environment. Attentional Processes refer to our ability to selectively focus our consciousness on a particular stimulus while ignoring others. Finally, Perceptual Processes involve the brain actively organising and interpreting sensory information to create a meaningful whole. The chapter discusses the Gestalt principles of perceptual organisation (like proximity, similarity, and closure) and explains how perception is an active, subjective process of constructing our reality, not just passively receiving it.
6. Learning
This chapter defines Learning as any relatively permanent change in behaviour or behavioural potential produced by experience. It explores several major theories of learning. Classical Conditioning, pioneered by Ivan Pavlov, explains how we learn through association (e.g., a bell sound becomes associated with food). Operant Conditioning, associated with B.F. Skinner, describes how the consequences of a behaviour—reinforcement or punishment—determine whether that behaviour is likely to be repeated. The chapter also covers Observational Learning (learning by watching others, as shown in Albert Bandura's famous Bobo doll experiment) and cognitive forms of learning, such as insight learning. These theories provide a framework for understanding how we acquire skills, habits, fears, and knowledge.
7. Human Memory
This chapter delves into the complexities of Human Memory, the cognitive system responsible for encoding, storing, and retrieving information. It introduces the influential stage model of memory, which proposes three distinct stages: a fleeting Sensory Memory, a limited-capacity Short-Term Memory (STM), and a vast and durable Long-Term Memory (LTM). The chapter further classifies LTM into declarative memory (facts and events) and procedural memory (skills and habits). It also explores the reasons for forgetting, discussing theories like trace decay and interference. The chapter concludes by highlighting that memory is not a perfect recording but a reconstructive process, and offers practical strategies for improving memory.
8. Thinking
This chapter explores Thinking as a higher-order cognitive process that involves manipulating information to form concepts, reason, solve problems, and make decisions. It explains how we form concepts, the mental categories we use to group objects and ideas. The chapter details various aspects of thinking, including problem-solving (using strategies like algorithms and heuristics), reasoning (deductive and inductive), and decision-making. It also examines creative thinking, which involves generating novel and useful ideas, often through divergent thinking. The intricate relationship between language and thought is also discussed, highlighting how language provides the tools to structure and express our thoughts.
9. Motivation And Emotion
This chapter examines two intertwined forces that energize and direct our behaviour: Motivation and Emotion. Motivation refers to the internal processes that initiate, direct, and sustain activities. The chapter discusses different types of motives—biological (like hunger and thirst) and psychosocial (like the need for achievement and affiliation)—and explores key theories, including Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, which organizes needs from basic survival to self-actualisation. Emotion is defined as a complex subjective experience involving physiological arousal, expressive behaviours, and conscious feeling. The chapter discusses basic emotions like happiness, sadness, anger, and fear, and examines classical theories that explain the relationship between our bodily responses and our emotional feelings.