| Non-Rationalised Psychology NCERT Notes, Solutions and Extra Q & A (Class 11th & 12th) | |||||||||||||||||||
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Class 12th Psychology NCERT Notes, NCERT Question Solutions and Extra Q & A (Non-Rationalised)
1. Variations In Psychological Attributes
This chapter explores the concept of individual differences, acknowledging that people vary in their psychological characteristics. It focuses on key attributes like intelligence, aptitude, interests, and personality. The chapter delves deep into the study of intelligence, presenting various theoretical frameworks, including the psychometric approach (which views intelligence as a single aggregate of abilities) and the information-processing approach. It introduces important theories such as Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences and Robert Sternberg’s triarchic theory. The chapter also discusses the assessment of these attributes through standardized psychological tests, the concept of IQ (Intelligence Quotient), and the ongoing debate on the roles of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture) in shaping intelligence, emphasizing the importance of understanding these variations for personal and societal development.
2. Self And Personality
This chapter provides a comprehensive examination of the concepts of Self and Personality. The 'self' is explored in terms of self-concept, self-esteem, and self-identity. Personality is defined as the characteristic and relatively stable patterns of behaviour, thought, and emotion that distinguish one person from another. The chapter presents a rich overview of major theoretical approaches to personality. This includes the psychodynamic approach of Sigmund Freud (with concepts like id, ego, and superego), the humanistic approach of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow (emphasizing self-actualisation), the trait approach (identifying core personality traits like the 'Big Five'), and socio-cognitive perspectives. Various methods of personality assessment are also discussed, from self-report inventories to projective techniques like the Rorschach Inkblot Test.
3. Meeting Life Challenges
This chapter focuses on the psychological processes involved in dealing with life's challenges, particularly Stress. It defines stress as a pattern of responses an organism makes to a stimulus event that disturbs its equilibrium. The chapter discusses the various sources of stress (stressors), its types, and its physiological and psychological effects on health, introducing concepts like Hans Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS). A central theme is the exploration of coping strategies—the conscious efforts to manage stressful situations. It differentiates between task-oriented, emotion-oriented, and avoidance-oriented coping. The chapter also highlights the importance of life skills, resilience, social support, and positive health practices in promoting well-being and effectively mitigating the negative impacts of stress.
4. Psychological Disorders
This chapter introduces the field of abnormal psychology, focusing on Psychological Disorders. It begins by discussing the concept of abnormality, often defined by the 'four Ds': deviance, distress, dysfunction, and danger. The chapter provides a classification of major psychological disorders based on diagnostic systems. It offers an overview of various categories, including anxiety disorders (like phobias and OCD), trauma- and stressor-related disorders, somatic symptom disorders, depressive disorders, bipolar disorders, and psychotic disorders like schizophrenia. It also touches upon neurodevelopmental and substance-related disorders. The chapter emphasizes the bio-psycho-social model for understanding the causes of these disorders and highlights the pervasive issue of stigma associated with mental illness, advocating for empathy and mental health awareness.
5. Therapeutic Approaches
Following the discussion on disorders, this chapter explores the various Therapeutic Approaches used to treat them. It outlines the nature and process of psychotherapy, emphasizing the centrality of the therapeutic relationship or alliance between the therapist and the client. The chapter details several major therapeutic modalities. These include psychodynamic therapy (focusing on unconscious conflicts), behaviour therapy (using learning principles to change maladaptive behaviours), cognitive therapies like Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT), and humanistic-existential therapy (promoting self-awareness and personal growth). It also mentions alternative therapies and the importance of rehabilitation, providing a broad overview of the methods available to alleviate psychological distress and promote mental well-being.
6. Attitude And Social Cognition
This chapter delves into the domain of social psychology, focusing on Attitude and Social Cognition. Attitudes are defined as evaluations of people, objects, and ideas, and the chapter examines their A-B-C components (Affective, Behavioural, Cognitive). It discusses attitude formation, attitude change, and the relationship between attitudes and behaviour. Social Cognition deals with how we perceive, interpret, and remember social information. This includes schema, impression formation, and attribution theory, which explains how we infer the causes of others' behaviour. The chapter also critically examines the related concepts of stereotypes (cognitive component), prejudice (affective component), and discrimination (behavioural component), explaining how these social-cognitive processes shape our interactions and social reality.
7. Social Influence And Group Processes
This chapter continues the exploration of social psychology by examining Social Influence and Group Processes. Social influence refers to the ways in which people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviours are affected by others. It covers classic concepts like Conformity (adjusting behaviour to group norms, as demonstrated in Asch’s experiments), compliance, and obedience to authority (as studied by Milgram). The chapter then analyzes behaviour within groups, discussing group formation, types of groups, and how the presence of others affects individual performance (e.g., social facilitation and social loafing). It also explores group decision-making phenomena like groupthink and group polarization, highlighting the powerful impact of social contexts on individual actions.
8. Psychology And Life
This chapter illustrates the practical application of Psychology and Life, showing how psychological knowledge can be used to understand and solve real-world problems. It explores several key areas. In Environmental Psychology, it discusses the interplay between human behaviour and the physical environment, addressing issues like noise, pollution, and promoting pro-environmental actions. It also examines the psychology of poverty and discrimination, aggression, and health. The chapter highlights the positive contributions of psychology in fields like sports, media, and community development, demonstrating its broad relevance in improving the quality of life and addressing pressing social and personal challenges.
9. Developing Psychological Skills
This final chapter focuses on the development of essential Psychological Skills that are useful in both professional psychological practice and everyday life. It provides a practical guide to honing these competencies. The chapter elaborates on generic skills like intellectual and personal skills, and then focuses on specific skills crucial for psychologists. These include effective communication (both verbal and non-verbal), observation, and interviewing. It places special emphasis on the core skills required for counselling, such as authenticity, positive regard for the client, and particularly, empathy—the ability to understand another person's feelings from their frame of reference. Mastering these skills is presented as fundamental for effective interpersonal interaction and professional competence in psychology.